The Effect of Social and Institutional Factors on Women Empowerment in Ethiopian Public Higher Education Institutions: Policy Percpectives

The purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of social and institutional factors on women's empowerment. A descriptive research design with 382 usable samples was used to study the effects. Both correlation and regression analysis were used and proposed hypothesis tested the finding reveals that social factor had a beta value of.489 whereas, institutional factors were having a beta of -.57 showing both are high effects women empowerment in Ethiopian public higher institution and they are the predictor of women empowerment. Hence, the government shall set up an institutional framework that helps to reduce such challenges and further to fill gaps in women empowerment


Introduction
Empowering women have been a major issue in both developing and developed nation and becoming a serious issue of the day it affects national development, ensuring and bring sustainable economic growth in a given nation. As most feminist researchers have agreed upon, education importance to empower women dispute, particularly there are significant gender representation gaps.
Researchers examined that the structural, organizational barriers women encounter in advancing to higherlevel management positions are the major issues that challenges in developed and developing countries [1,2,3]., homologous reproduction, work-life balance issue, gender role stereotypes and perceptions of gendered opportunities can be the major issues that significantly affect women's advancement to higher management position [4,5,6] More importantly, the beliefs on others are concerned Work-life balance and the inter-role conflict wherein at least some work and family responsibilities significantly affect the beliefs of respondents on women's leadership issues [3]. Demands of work negatively limit the time women and men have to spend with the family, and time with the family may also negatively restrict time to spend on work [4]. Female leaders, particularly face serious difficulties with balancing work life and family life which make them experience conflict between their role as employees and family members [6]. All these elements were summarized under three major factors called personal, social and institutional factors. And studies prove that this is the major factors that hinder women's advancement in all nations irrespective of socioeconomic development. Hence, this study also addresses its implication on the advancement of women's employment in Ethiopia taking selected universities in Ethiopia from the different cluster and will analyze the impact of social and institutional factors on empowerment of women in Ethiopia.

Literature Review 2.0. Introduction 2.1. Social factors
Three basic factors have significantly affected women's empowerment. Studies prove that these factors play a major role in women's advancement in different sectors. It includes social, personal and institutional factors. Having this, A social role is more than beliefs about the attributes of women and men [5]: Many of these expectations are normative in the sense that they describe qualities or behavioral tendencies believed to be desirable for each sex [6]. Because normative expectations are gendered, social role theory helps better explain existing gender stereotypes and expectations. The term gender role thus refers to the collection of both descriptive and injunctive expectations associated with women and men [7]. Cialdini and Trost (1998) explained that roles include descriptive and injunctive norms. While descriptive norms refer to consensual expectations about what members of a group actually do, injunctive norms point out consensual expectations about what a group of people ought to do or ideally would make [8]. Descriptive norms are thus synonymous with psychologists' usual definitions of stereotypes of group members. The descriptive aspect of gender roles originates in perceivers' corresponding inferences from the observed behavior of men and women about their personal qualities. This aspect ranges from activities such as men working outside the home and women staying home as gendered social roles, to the personal qualities that are apparently required to undertake these activities [9]. Gender stereotypes, thus follow from observations of people in sex-typical social roles, especially men's occupancy of breadwinner and higher status roles and women's occupancy of homemaker and lower status roles [7] Miller, Kerr, and Reid, (1999) explained the situation, describing occupational segregation attributed to employment barriers that restrict the access of women to certain types of jobs or that trap them within certain types of jobs as a "glass wall" [10]. Another barrier women face in the workplace is stereotyping. Taking male stereotypes of women as an example of a barrier, Schein (2001) claimed, "probably the single most important hurdle for women in management in all industrialized countries is the persistent stereotype that associates management with being male" [11]. If the managerial position is viewed as a "masculine" one, then, all else being equal, a male candidate appears to have an advantage over a female candidate because people prefer the male leaders' masculine characteristics to female leaders' feminine characteristics. Based on the above assertion the researcher proposes that H1:-there is a relationship between women empowerment and social factors.

2.2.Institutional factors
A recent study of women in a variety of occupations reported that 40% of the women in the study had been denied a raise or promotion because of being a woman [12]. Women face barriers due to the existence of sex-based stereotypes related to masculine traits. Beside, Work-life balance had also is seen as a barrier to women's career development and growth [12]. Studies show that Women's participation in the educational sector has created a type of inter-role conflict within families that makes it difficult to balance work life and family life. Demands of work negatively limit the time women and men have to spend with the family, and time with the family may also negatively restrict time to spend for work [13].
A study Enomoto (2000) shows women are still underrepresented in the upper echelons of these same organizations [14]. Sapiro V (1981), shows, Women, are often the ones most likely not to react when discriminated against for fear of being harmed or further victimized which lead to the issue of women discrimination into and the finding shows, men are still the prime barrier to women in management [15]. Shepherd (2013) found that the job stress of women was higher than that of men when working in a predominantly or traditionally male environment [16]. Also, Skrla, Reyes, and Scheurich (2000) described organizational contexts in which men used intimidation and silence to discourage women [17] which is also supported in a study by Jackson, (2001). Shows there is high filtration and screening techniques that lead female discriminations supplemented with lack of role models as stated [18]. Based on this the following hypothesis forwarded accordingly H2:-Institutional factor strong relationship women's empowerment in Ethiopia

Material and method
A descriptive research design was used to undertake the current study by randomly selecting universities from three major cluster calls the first second and third generation. The cluster is standby the ministry of education taking establishment of universities year as a baseline and takes 2 forms, each university form 50 universities found in Ethiopia, where the majority of them are categorized under second and third generation universities.
In those randomly selected universities, there were 6500 academic staffs and t using prison a morgan sampling ( 1976) samples of 364 were determined, however, with the addition of nonresponse and post-response error a total of 450 questionnaires were distributed and 420 were collected where 32 of them were poorly filled. Hence, 382 usable samples were used for the current study to test the proposed hypothesis both correlation and regression analysis were used using the latest version of SPSS.

Analysis and discussion 4.1. Correlation Analysis
This study employs the correlation which investigating the strength of relationships between the studied variables. According to [18] " measures the linear association between two metric variables" Correlations were calculated in two-stage as measures of relationships between the independent (predictor) variables and (outcome variable) dependent variable. This test gives an indication of both directions, positive (when one variable increases and so do the other one), or negative (when one variable increases and the other one decreases [19]. The test also indicates the strength of a relationship between variables by a value that can range from -1.00 to 1.00; when 0 indicates no relationship, -1.00 indicates a negative correlation, and 1.00 indicates a perfect positive correlation [20]. For the rest of the values is used the following guideline: small correlation for value 0.1 to 0.29; medium for 0.3 to 0.49; and large for 0.50 to 1.0 [20]. All the cases were included in the correlation analysis. The results are shown in 1 The significance level of correlation between (outcome variable) dependent variable for the first stage social factor that affects women empowerment and independent (predictor) variables is not larger than 0.01 for and institutional factor that affects women empowerment (0.000) indicating all are a significant predictor of one another. The correlations of a social and organizational factor had correlation value of-.871 ** , social factors and women empowerment had also correlation value .770 ** institutional factor with social factor had -.770. All shows they have a positive direct relationship with one another.

Multiple regression analysis
The results of this analysis indicate how well set independent variables (social and personal factors) are able to predict the Dependent Variable (women empowerment). Furthermore, it shows how much unique variance in the dependent variable is explained by each of the independent variables. The Multiple Regression analysis assumes that the relationship between a single dependent variable and each independent variable is linear [21]. The model's multiple coefficients of determination or R square (R 2 .670) obtained indicates that 94.7% of the variance in the measurement (women empowerment) function can be explained by social and institutional factor and significant at a p-value of <.oo5.

Hypotheses test
The Proposed hypotheses are tested based on the results of the multiple regression analysis. A Hypothesis is supported when the Sig. value is smaller than 0.05, and a null hypothesis is rejected when the Sig. value is equal to or larger than 0.05. Beta coefficients were used to evaluate the direction of each linear relationship (i.e. negative or positive). Therefore, interpretation of the t-statistics and beta estimates proceeded for each hypothesis. [21]  Among the four constructs, multiple linear regression analysis revealed that social factor had a beta value of