Production Systems, Productive Performances, Constraints and Rate of Inbreeding of Indigenous Chicken Populations in Kaffa Zone, South Western Ethiopia

The main objective of this study was to describe the production systems, productive performances and associated constraints of indigenous chicken populations in Kaffa Zone. Data on production systems, productive performances and constraints of chickens were collected from 300 purposively selected households using a semistructured questioner. The results indicated that majority of the respondent were female (71.1%) and 56% of the interviewed farmers were illiterate. The average family size per household was 5.86. Farmers mainly keep their chickens in the kitchen (60.7%) and main houses (30.7 %). Maize (55.7 %) and sorghum (20.3 %) were the major feed supplements provided by the households. The average chicken flock size, age at first egg (months), average egg/hen/clutch (clutch size), clutch number and annual egg/hen/year were 8.68, 6.09, 12.3, 3.6 and 44, respectively. The average hatchability was 80.5%. The major production constraints were predators (72.7 %) and diseases (27.3 %) across the studied districts. The type of predators which are commonly occurring included Buteo jamaicensis locally known as “Gace”, Helogale hirtula locally known as “Shiifoo” or “Wociwoco”, Felis silvestris locally known as “Haallaro” and Felis catus locally known as “Kubbi Kullaro” accounted about 54.6, 24.4, 15.5, and 4.58 % respectively. The effective population size and rate of inbreeding were 486 and 0.111% indicating chicken populations in the study area are not exposed to inbreeding. In conclusion, the current study indicates illiterate female farmers were mainly involved in care and managing of chickens under scavenging system. The performances of chickens were comparable with the national reports under scavenging system; however these performances were influenced by predators and diseases. Therefore, educating and training of women’s should be implemented to improve the overall socio economic status of the family and benefit them. In addition successful intervention strategy should be carried out to effectively utilize the existing potentials of indigenous chicken populations in line with predator and disease control programs. Again, conservation of the indigenous chicken populations should also be considered before they have been diluted with exotic breeds. Keywords; Effective population size, Household Characteristics, Indigenous chicken, Productive performance, Rate of inbreeding. DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/9-5-08 Publication date:March 31 2019 Introduction In Ethiopia most of the rural communities keep indigenous chicken populations under scavenging management system (Tadele et al., 2018). Due to the presence of various agro-climatic conditions which enables the rural societies to keep a wide varieties of indigenous chicken populations under scavenging management systems (Azage et al., 2010; Tadele et al., 2018). In Ethiopia chickens are the most widespread and almost every rural family owns chickens, which provide a valuable source of family protein and income (Tadelle et al., 2003). The total chicken population in the country is estimated to be 56.53 million and of these 94.3 % indigenous which are mainly kept by small holder farmers in scavenging environments (CSA, 2017). The most dominant chicken types reared in Ethiopia are local ecotypes, which show a large variation in body conformation, plumage color, comb type and productivity (Halima et al., 2007; Tadele et al., 2018). However; the economic contribution of the sector is not still proportional to the huge chicken numbers, attributed to the presence of many productions, reproduction and infrastructural constraints (Aberra, 2000). In the rural areas of Ethiopia indigenous chickens has been mainly kept by the poor due to their significance for source of animal protein, generation of extra cash incomes and religious /cultural (Alders et al., 2009). Moreover, the indigenous chicken’s populations which have been kept by majority of rural farmers in Ethiopia are good scavengers and foragers, well adapted to harsh environmental conditions and their minimal space requirements make chicken rearing a suitable activity and an alternative income source for the rural farmers. In addition, the local chicken sector constitutes a significant contribution to human livelihood and contributes significantly to food security of poor households. Horst (1988) considered the indigenous fowl populations as gene reservoirs, particularly for those genes naked neck (Na) that have adaptive values in tropical conditions. Despite the important roles of local chickens, rearing them can be considered as a side line agricultural activity. However, Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) DOI: 10.7176/JBAH


Introduction
In Ethiopia most of the rural communities keep indigenous chicken populations under scavenging management system (Tadele et al., 2018). Due to the presence of various agro-climatic conditions which enables the rural societies to keep a wide varieties of indigenous chicken populations under scavenging management systems (Azage et al., 2010;Tadele et al., 2018). In Ethiopia chickens are the most widespread and almost every rural family owns chickens, which provide a valuable source of family protein and income (Tadelle et al., 2003). The total chicken population in the country is estimated to be 56.53 million and of these 94.3 % indigenous which are mainly kept by small holder farmers in scavenging environments (CSA, 2017). The most dominant chicken types reared in Ethiopia are local ecotypes, which show a large variation in body conformation, plumage color, comb type and productivity (Halima et al., 2007;Tadele et al., 2018). However; the economic contribution of the sector is not still proportional to the huge chicken numbers, attributed to the presence of many productions, reproduction and infrastructural constraints (Aberra, 2000). In the rural areas of Ethiopia indigenous chickens has been mainly kept by the poor due to their significance for source of animal protein, generation of extra cash incomes and religious /cultural (Alders et al., 2009).
Moreover, the indigenous chicken's populations which have been kept by majority of rural farmers in Ethiopia are good scavengers and foragers, well adapted to harsh environmental conditions and their minimal space requirements make chicken rearing a suitable activity and an alternative income source for the rural farmers. In addition, the local chicken sector constitutes a significant contribution to human livelihood and contributes significantly to food security of poor households. Horst (1988) considered the indigenous fowl populations as gene reservoirs, particularly for those genes naked neck (Na) that have adaptive values in tropical conditions. Despite the important roles of local chickens, rearing them can be considered as a side line agricultural activity. However, estimate the effective population size. Effective population size for a randomly mated population was calculated following the equation given by Falconer and Mackay (1996).
= 4 ( × ) + Where; Ne = effective population size; Nm = number of breeding males and Nf = number of breeding females.

Estimation of rate of inbreeding
Data on the rate of inbreeding was calculated from effective number of breeding indigenous chickens from the studied districts to determine the current status of inbreeding. Effective population size (Ne) was used to estimate the rate of inbreeding in a population. Rate of inbreeding (ΔF) for each studied districts and total populations were estimated from the effective population size data following the model adopted from (Falconer and Mackay, 1996;Maiwashe et al., 2006).

Statistical Analysis
Data collected on socio economic, production systems, productive performances and constraints of chicken populations were coded and entered into a computer using Microsoft Office Excel 2007. Descriptive statistics were employed to analyze the data in each district and Chi-square (χ 2 ) test was also employed to compare the significance of district by using Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 2002, ver. 8.2).

Household Characteristics of the Study Areas
The household characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table 1. From the total interviewed indigenous chicken owning farmers, 70.7, 70 and 72.5 % were females in Decha, Chena and Gimbo districts, respectively. Higher proportion of female respondents (71.1%) than males (28.9%) was observed. This indicates that female farmers are mainly involved in managing and caring of chickens in the study districts.
The average age of respondents in the present study was 39.9, 41.3 and 39.2 years in Decha, Chena and Gimbo districts, respectively. The educational level of respondents showed that, about 66.4, 58.7 and 42.5 % in Decha, Chena and Gimbo districts, respectively were illiterate. This might be due to the fact that farmers in rural communities particularly in this area did not have access to education before. Others can read and write and some were involved in formal education such as primary first cycle (1-4 th ) ; second cycle (5-8 th ) and high school (9-10 th or 12 th ) and above in all study districts. The average family size in Decha, Chena and Gimbo districts was 5.97, 5.83 and 5.7 persons, respectively with the overall mean family size of 5.86 persons.

Livestock ownership and flock characteristics
As presented in Table 2, the overall mean size of livestock populations was 3.4, 2.4, 0.9 and 0.2 heads of cattle, sheep, goat and equine, respectively. The lowest proportions of cattle and sheep were reported from Decha which is significantly lower (P<0.05) than Chena and Gimbo districts, respectively. The average chicken flock size per household in Decha, Chena and Gimbo districts was 9.02, 8.83 and 8.01, respectively with the overall mean chicken flock size of 8.68 (Table 3). The largest proportions of chicken populations were reported from Decha and Chena districts and which are significantly higher (p<0.05) than Gimbo district.

Reproductive and Productive Performance of Indigenous Chickens
The performance of indigenous chicken populations is presented in Table 4. Age at first egg (months) was significantly longer for chickens reared in Gimbo (6.3 months) district than Chena (6.1 months) and Decha (6 months) districts. Egg number per hen per clutch in the present study was 12.3, 12.2 and 12.6 eggs in Decha, Chena and Gimbo districts, respectively. Average number of days per clutch (clutch length) was lower in Gimbo district than, Decha and Chena districts, which had similar values. Eggs incubated per hen/clutch in Decha, Chena and Gimbo districts were 10.2, 10.2 and 10, respectively. The hatchability percentages of chickens reared in Gimbo district was significantly (P < 0.05) lower than Decha chickens and has comparable with Chena district chickens. District had no significant effect (P > 0.05) on survivability of chicken. In general, the average egg and clutch number per hen per year in the current study were 44 and 3.6, respectively.

Feed and Feeding Practices
In the current study, supplementary feeding for chickens was provided in all study districts. In Gimbo, all the interviewed households provide supplementary feeds to their chickens, whereas 98.6 and 97.5 % in Decha and Chena districts respectively provide supplementary feeds. The major supplementary feed in the study districts was Maize (55.7 %) followed by Sorghum (20.3 %) and Wheat (10.3 %). The majority (39.7 %) provide feed twice per day.

Watering practices
With regard to provision of water in the current study, all respondents in Gimbo district provide water while 98.6 and 97.5 % of them in Decha and Chena districts, respectively provide water for their chickens. In the study districts river water was the major source of water (69.3 %) followed by Borehole water (22.3 %).

Production Constraints of Indigenous Chicken in the Study Area
Data pertaining to constraints in chicken production is presented in (Table 6). Predators were the most important problem reported to be affecting poultry productivity in all the study districts accounting for 74.3, 80 and 62.5 % in Decha, Chena and Gimbo districts, respectively. Disease was the second constraint as reported by 25.7, 20 and 37.5 % of respondents in Decha, Chena and Gimbo districts, respectively. In all the production constraints reported, significance differences (P< 0.05) were observed among the study districts.
The type of predators commonly occurring in the study districts were significantly differed (P < 0.05) across the different sites. These predators, which are mentioned by their scientific and local name included Milvus migrants locally known as "Gace", Helogale hirtula locally known as "Shiifoo" or "Wociwoco", Leptailurvs serval locally known as "Hallaroo" and Felis silvestris locally known as "Kubbi Kullaaro" accounted for about 54.6, 24.4, 15.5, and 4.58 %, respectively. In addition, Papio anubis locally known as "Sheexxo" (4%) was also reported from Gimbo districts which cause loss of chickens.
The prevalence of chicken diseases in Decha and Gimbo districts was higher with 98.6 and 97.5 %, respectively and in Chena 88.7 % (Table 6). Season had significant effect (p < 0.05) on the occurrence of disease and highest outbreak was recorded on rainy season, as witnessed by 71.8, 53.2 and 52.1 % of respondents in Gimbo, Chena and Decha districts, respectively. This indicates rainy season was more favorable for the growth of disease causing agents across the study districts. Overall, the chi-square test suggests there was significant differences (p < 0.01) in the prevalence of disease and in favorable season of disease occurrences (p < 0.05) across the study districts.

Effective Population Size and Rate of inbreeding
As presented in Table 7, the overall effective population size (Ne) was found to be 486 while the rate of inbreeding were 0.073, 0.126 and 0.133 % in Decha, Chena and Gimbo districts, respectively with the overall rate of inbreeding 0.111 % across the study areas. In Decha district the percentage value of rate of inbreeding was comparatively lower than Chena and Gimbo districts, however, Chena and Gimbo districts had comparable percentage value. The variation of Ne in the studied district might be due to the small number of cocks kept in the studied households.

Discussions Household Characteristics and Respondents Profile in the Study Area Household Characteristics of the Study Area
In the present study the highest percentage of females (71.1) than males (28.9) was observed, which was in agreement with the results of various scholars in the country (Moreda et al., 2013;Hailemichael, 2013;Wondu et al., 2013). However, the highest value of males (62%) was reported by Mulgeta and Tebikew (2013). The result on educational level obtained in the current study with higher illiterate (56%) was also in line with the findings of different scholars (Halima et al., 2007;Moreda et al., 2013;Hailemichael, 2013;Wondu et al., 2013). The average family size in the present study (5.86) was in close agreement with the findings of Halima et al. (2007), Emebet et al. (2013) and Hailemichael (2013). Lower family sizes: 4.5 and 4.06 person per households was reported by Mulgeta and Tebikew (2013) and Solomon et al. (2013), respectively. From the present findings and the reports from various parts of the country, it is clear that, female farmers are the main to care and manage chickens. Hence, it is important to empower women's through better education as they are the most to contribute a significant role in the improvement of indigenous chicken production systems. In line with this Halima et al. (2007) also indicated that, educating women will improve the overall socio-economic status of the family and the society.

Livestock Ownership and Flock Characteristics
The average cattle (3.4), sheep (2.4) and goat (0.9) number per household in the study area were comparable with the reports of Hailemichael (2013). However, those reported by Emebet et al. (2013) and Solomon et al. (2013) are higher than the present study. The result on average chicken flock size (8.68) per household in the current study was comparable with the reports of Nebiyu et al. (2013) who reported 8.5 chickens per household in Hallaba districts of Southern Ethiopia. The number of chickens per household reported by Halima et al. (2007) in Northwest Ethiopia (7.1), Aberra et al. (2013) in Southern region (7.9) and Mulgeta and Tebkew (2013) in Amhara region (7.76) are also in line with the present study. However, the findings obtained by other scholars in various parts of Ethiopia showed higher values than the present study (Tadele et al., 2003;Wondimu et al., 2013;Deneke et al., 2014). There are also reports that show lower values (4.85 flock size per household) than found in the present study (Moreda et al., 2013). The variations in flock size seen in different parts of the country might be due to the presence of seasonal outbreak of diseases, predators, feed resource availability, economic aspects of the community, environmental conditions and settlement pattern of the societies.

Reproductive and Productive Performance of Indigenous Chickens
The average age at first egg (6.1) of chickens in the current study was in close agreement with the findings of Deneke et al. (2014) from the Southeastern Oromia Zone. High age values at first egg of indigenous chickens was reported from various parts of the country by Tadele et al. (2003), Aberra et al. (2013), Melkamu et al. (2013) and Nebiyu et al. (2013). Low age at first egg was also reported from Northwest Ethiopia by Addisu et al. (2013) and Solomon et al. (2013) with 5.6 and 5.2 months, respectively. Different report on age of chickens at first egg might be due to lack of proper supplementary feeds, availability of scavengable feed resources, disease outbreak and provision of clean water by the households.
The present finding with regard to average egg production per clutch per hen ( The average hatchability (80.5 %) of chickens in the current study was comparable with the results of Aberra et al. (2013) and Deneke et al. (2014) in which the hatchability percentages were 79.1 and 81.5 percents, respectively. However, observations by several scholars in various parts of the country were higher than the present study (Worku et al., 2012;Nebiyu et al., 2013;Solomon et al., 2013). On the other hand, lower hatchability values were reported from various parts of the country (Melkamu and Andargie, 2013;Getachew et al., 2015). The average survival rate of chickens in the present study (49.2 %) was lower than those reported by Aberra et al. These variations in the hatchability and survivability of chicks might be due to storage condition of the egg, incubation materials, quality of eggs, to some extent the hen factors, seasonal outbreak of disease, predator attacks, poor nutrition and management, availability of scavenging feed resources and feed supplements.

Husbandry Practices of Chickens in the Study Area
In the present study, all the studied districts manage their chickens in scavenging system. This findings is in close agreement with the observations of different scholars in various parts of the country, where scavenging was the dominant type of chicken rearing (Melkamu and Andargie, 2013;Nebiyu et al., 2013;Solomon et al., 2013). This management system might be due to the fact that indigenous chickens can best fits as they receive few inputs such as feed supplementation and health care for their survival, production and productivity.
The majority of chickens in the study area are kept in the kitchen (60.7%) and main houses (30.7%) during night time which is in agreement with the reports of Halima et al. (2007), Addisu et al. (2013), Moreda et al. (2013) and Mulgeta et al. (2013). A study conducted in western Kenya indicated, similar scenario where majority of the households (73%) in the rural areas kept their chickens in the kitchen or in main houses (Justus et al., 2013).
In the study districts chickens were provided with supplemental feeds (98.7%), which is in line with those reported by Addisu et al. (2013), Melkamu and Tebikew (2013), Mulgeta et al. (2013) and Solomon et al. (2013). Water is provided for chicken from different sources such as river (69.3%), Borehole (22.3%) and well (7.33%) which is also common scenario in various areas (Addisu et al., 2013;Nebiyu et al., 2013;Solomon et al., 2013;Wondu et al., 2013). The present study agrees with the findings of Nebiyu et al. (2013) and Solomon et al. (2013) who noted river water as the major source for chickens. However, the current study disagrees with the reports of Wondu et al. (2013) who found that, tap water as the major source (92 %) for chickens reared in Nothern Gonder Zone of Amhara region. Thus, the current study suggests most of the rural society in the studied districts depends mainly on river, borehole or well water due to lack of tap water.

Production Constraints of Chickens in the Study Area
The major constrains of chickens in the study districts were predators (72.7%) and diseases (27.3%). This result is in agreement with the reports of Melkamu and Wube (2013), Alem (2014), Matiwos and Selamawit (2014) where predators were reported to be the major problems in indigenous chickens reared in various parts of the country. In the current study the types of diseases affecting chicken production were not included as farmers could not identify clearly the types of diseases affecting their chickens. However, the various types of predators which are reported in their scientific names and local languages such as Milvus migrants locally known as "Gace", Helogale hirtula locally known as "Shiifoo" or "Wociwoco", Leptailurvs serval locally known as "Hallaroo" and Felis silvestris locally known as "Kubbi Kullaaro" accounting 54.6, 24.4, 15.5, and 4.58 %, respectively, which are also reported in various parts of the country. As reported by Alem (2014), Hawk, Genet, Wild cat, Fox and snake were found to be the most important predators occurred in the low and mid land agro ecological zones of central Tigray. Similarly, as reported by Matiwos and Selamawit (2014), Wild cats, Wild Egyptian vulture, Honey bagger and Snakes were being the most challenging predators in Amaro districts. Hence, the various types of predators observed in the current study and elsewhere might be due to the agro ecological suitability of the country for predators.

Effective population size (Ne) and rate of inbreeding (ΔF)
To obtain some idea on the Ne and rate of inbreeding over generations, Ne was calculated based on the total chicken flocks of farmers who possessed their own breeding male and female chickens. The Ne in the current study ranged from 375 to 685 with the average Ne of 486 implying number of breeding individuals were comparatively low. According to Maiwashe et al. (2006) Ne is a measure of genetic variability within a population where large values of Ne indicate more variability and small values of Ne indicate less genetic variability. The low Ne estimated in the current study suggests that the breeding population might be too small. Even if neighboring flocks were scavenging together, which gives an opportunity for breeding cocks to mate with hens, the number of cocks per flock is still considered lower than required.
Effective breeding population size and the corresponding ΔF reported by Nigussie et al. (2010) by considering the average mean flock size of chickens for Mandura, Horro and Konso, village chickens, Eskindir et al. (2013) from Jarso districts and Hailemichael (2013) for Endamehari, Ofla and Raya-Azebo districts' chicken population were in agreement with the present study. However, the report of Eskindir et al. (2013) from Horro districts (3.73) was lower than the current study due to the fact that they considered the average flock size rather than taking the total number of chickens in computing both parameters, i.e., Ne and ΔF. However, the result reported by Hagan et al. (2013) from Ghana for Coastal, Forest and Guinea Ecological Zones which were 13.3, 11.3 and 12.9 respectively had three fold higher than those reported in Ethiopia. The current study was also in similar scenario with the result reported by Rusfidra et al. (2014).
The average rate of inbreeding (0.111%) in the current study was in good agreement with the reports of various scholars in the country. Hailemichael (2013) reported 0.16, 0.15 and 0.14 rate of inbreeding for Endamehari, Ofla and Raya-Azebo districts of chicken population, respectively. The rate of inbreeding reported by Eskindir et al. (2013) falls in the range of 0.13 to 0.12 which is in line with the current study. The rate of inbreeding values reported by Hagan et al. (2013) was comparable with the observed values in Decha chicken populations. According to Henson (1992), the acceptable level of inbreeding rate per generation is between 1% and 2%. Therefore, the rate of inbreeding obtained from the current study was low which suggests that chicken populations in study area are not exposed to inbreeding.

Conclusion and Recommendations
The current study indicated scavenging as the major chicken production systems practiced across all the study districts. Majority of the respondents in the study area provide supplementary feed and water to their chickens. The results on productive performances of chickens obtained in the present study were comparable with the reports of many scholars and also in line with the national reports of CSA (2015) under scavenging system. The major production constraints were predators and diseases across the studied districts. The result relating to effective population size and rate of inbreeding obtained in the present study indicates the chicken populations are not exposed for inbreeding. Therefore, appropriate intervention strategy should be carried out to effectively utilize the existing potentials of indigenous chicken populations in combination with conservation of chickens before they have been diluted with exotic chicken breeds.