Production Performance, Consequence and Constraints of Small Ruminants in Ethiopia: A Review

Livestock are an integral part of agriculture that contribute to 35 to 49% of the agricultural GDP, 37 to 87% of the household incomes, and 15 to 17% of the foreign exchange earnings of the country. There are about 33.02 million heads of sheep and 38.96 million heads of goats’ population in Ethiopia. They are important components of the livestock subsector and are sources of cash income, milk, meat, wool, manure, and saving or risk mitigation during crop failures, property security, monetary saving and investment in addition to many other socioeconomic and cultural functions. Despite their large number, the reproductive, as well as productive traits of small ruminant are affected by several factors including breed, a season of conception, interval between parturitions, age, sex and health and nutritional status of the individual animal. Therefore, this paper is to review of concerned issue on reproductive and productive performances, consequence and constraints of small ruminants in Ethiopia.


. Seasonality of breeding
The season had a significant effect on most reproductive traits including fertility, lambing rate, and weaning rate. The higher percentages of parturitions for ewes/does in the Goma district of Jimma zone were increased starting from April to October while the decrease was observed starting from October to February (Shenkute, 2009). Urgessa et al. (2013) indicated that lambing/kidding occurred year-round, with the majority of lambing/kidding occurring in September to October and late April to June and lowest in January to early April, which characterize dry period under the Ethiopian conditions. According to Bushara and Abu-Nikhaila (2012), female kids born in the season with sufficient feed availability grow faster, attain sexual maturity earlier and produce kids at a younger age as compared to those born during the dry season. The higher parturitions occur from April to June in both species (Neme, 2016). Ewes lambing in the rainy season period returned to oestrus earlier, conceived earlier, and had shorter lambing intervals compared to ewes that lambed in the dry season period and this effect was largely attributed to the availability of pasture during the rainy season period (Salifu et al.,2018).
2.3. Production performance 2.3.1. Market/slaughter age Nutrition, especially dietary protein and energy, is a key factor affecting live weight gain and meat production of small ruminants (Bathaei and Leroy, 1996;Abera et al., 2014). Since the quality and quantity of the natural pasture vary with season, animals dependent on it are subject to nutritional stress in the dry season leading to Advances in Life Science and Technology www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-7181 (Paper) ISSN 2225-062X (Online) Vol.90, 2021 decreased animal productivity (Abusuwar and Ahmed, 2010; Melesse et al., 2015). The average slaughter age was 6.43 months for sheep and 6.27 months for goats in the west Shoa zone of Oromia Region (Neme, 2016). The average age for marketing/slaughtering in the Bale Zone of Oromia Region was 11.67 and 12.33 months for male and female goats, respectively (Asefa, 2013).
Although, Nigussie et al. (2013) reported that male sheep in eastern Ethiopia could be ready for market at age six months if cash was needed urgently, though the normal selling time was between ages 1-to-2 years of which fetch a premium price. Age at the slaughter age of Bati, Hararghe highland, and short-eared Somali goat were 12.9, 16.4, and 22.7 months, respectively (Tadesse et al., 2014a). The overall average age of marketing/slaughtering of goats in the Dire Dawa Administration was 15.69 months as reported by Eshetu et al., (2018). Male goat and sheep are slaughtered for family consumption at 7.10 and 7.20 months, respectively, and females are slaughtered from an age of 7.40 months for kids and 7.70 months for lambs (Kocho, 2007). The slaughter age of sheep in Southern Ethiopia was 8.60 months (Hussein, 2018).

Milk production
Sheep milk is one of the functionally active dairy foods and it is also considered as a nutritional powerhouse (Mohapatra et al., 2019). In the central rift valley, in the Eastern, Southeastern, and Northeastern parts of the country, goat milk is consumed by the farming communities (Ayalew et al., 2004). Sheep and goat milk account for 36.5% and 63.5%, respectively of the world's total small ruminant milk production (FAO, 2017). According to Dereje et al. (2015), the average milk yield estimated for Afar goats was 24 kg per lactation and 0.28 kg per day under the station management system. The average daily milk yield, lactation length, and lactation yield of Arsi Bale goats are 296 g/day, 83.4 days, and 21.7 kg, respectively, in the Arsi Negelle (Woldu et al., 2004). The average milk yield and lactation length of Arsi bale goats in Alaba district were 151 ml per day and 39 days, respectively (Gemiyu, 2009).

Importance of Small Ruminants in Livelihoods of Smallholder Farmers in Ethiopia
Small ruminants are an important source of income for the agricultural community and are also one of Ethiopia's major sources of foreign currency through the exportation of live animals, meat, and skin (Shiferaw et al., 2012). Small ruminants are relatively cheap when compared to cattle and are often the first asset acquired, through purchase or customary means, by a young family or by a poor family recovering from a disaster such as a drought or war (Gizaw et al., 2010). The purposes of keeping small ruminants vary from area to area due to ecological, economic, and cultural factors (Nigussie et al., 2013). However, they are mainly maintained for fulfilling multiple roles, such as cash income, meat, milk, skin, wool, manure, security, gifts and religious rituals as many authors (Getachew et al., 2010;Umeta et al., 2011;Kebede et al., 2012a;Hailemariam et al., 2013). According to Eshetu et al. (2018), cash income and milk are the most important purposes of goat rearing in the Dire Dawa Administration.
Small ruminants are mainly kept for income generation in many parts of Ethiopia to obtain cash income for household expenses, such as buying grains for household consumption, buying agricultural inputs such as fertilizer and improved seed and paying the medical and school expenses of household members (Dhaba et al., 2012). Many authors reported that small ruminants are primarily used for milk production for home consumption and meat production for sale (Gizaw, 2010;Abraham et al., 2017;Hagos et al., 2018b). With the increased environmental degradation and drought cycle due to climate change, the pastoral community is expanding goat production as a means of adaptation.
Ethiopian sheep and goat skins are preferred for leather garment and glove manufacturing in addition to being used for shoes upper, and the goat skins in particularly known for their quality and international acceptance (Boario, 2012). According to the Ethiopian small ruminant synthesis report, the increase in international demand for meat in general and the high demand for sheep and goat meat in the middle east countries is also another incentive for increased sheep and goat production in Ethiopia (Legese et al., 2014). However, traditional small ruminant production technologies and practices render production and productivity, as well as benefits to producers, falls below expectations. This is due to health constraints, inadequate feed, low genetic potential, and various management problems (Hailemariam et al., 2013;Abebe, 2018).
Ethiopian sheep and goat meat are exported mainly to the Middle East and North Africa countries. However, domestic demand for sheep and goat meat is quite seasonal as it follows the religious calendar of fasting periods and festivities such as New Year, Christmas, Easter, Ramadan, and Arafa. Consumption of small ruminant milk gives high nutritional value and considers it as a medicine and consumed either in its fresh state (boiled whole milk) or skimmed milk (Legese et al., 2014). The increased domestic and international demand for Ethiopian small ruminants has established them as important sources of Inland Revenue as well as foreign currency (Gizaw et al., 2010). In Ethiopia, the consumption of red meat by 2020 is expected to increase by 58% (Shapiro et al., 2015). This implies that they are operating in a lucrative business environment.

Constraints of Small Ruminant Production in Ethiopia 2.5.1. Disease and parasites
Diseases and parasites are also contributing to higher production losses of small ruminants. Prevalence of disease and parasites are the major constraints of sheep and goat production across production systems according to the report of many authors (Abebe et al., 2010;Gizaw et al., 2010;Umeta et al., 2011;Tadesse et al., 2014b;Beyene and Anja, 2018). Ectoparasites have transmission ability for many infections due to bloodsucking habits and skin damage is the most important cause of losses in the livestock industry (Tadesse et al., 2011).
Parasites such as mange mites, lice, and ticks are widely distributed in all agro-ecological zones in Ethiopia, causing a serious economic loss in smallholder farms (Kumsa et al., 2012). Mange mites are common in Ethiopia and reported from many regions and different agro climates. They are most prevalent in four national regional states of Ethiopia namely, the Amhara, Oromia, Tigray, and Southern Nation and Nationalities regional states (Mulugeta et al., 2010;Fekadu et al., 2013).
In western Oromia, it is indicated that pasteurellosis, diarrhea, liver fluke (fasciolosis), and lungworm were the most important diseases of sheep at different seasons of the year in western and south-western Ethiopia (Edea et al., 2012). Pasteurellosis, Pest des Petit Ruminants, Anthrax, Foot and Mouth diseases, and mange mites were reported as the most prevalent disease for goat productivity and survivability in northern Ethiopia (Hagos et al., 2018b). Lungworms are one of the most common causes of the respiratory problem of small ruminants in Asella Municipal Abattoir (Teketel and Alemu, 2019).

Feed shortage
Feed shortage is often mentioned as one of the main challenges facing sheep and goat production and it may arise due to prolonged drought resulting in a period of below-average rainfall leading to feeding and water shortage (Behnke and Metaferia, 2011;Legesse et al., 2014). As reported by Dhaba et al. (2012), the dry season extends from 3-6 months during which chronic feed shortage occurs in the Ilu Abba Bora Zone (mid-January to mid-April). Feed shortage is one of the limiting factors of livestock production in most parts of the country because of its availability and poor quality. Animals have to walk long distances in search of fodder and water during dry seasons. In most parts of the country where mixed farming is practiced, feed shortage occurs mainly from July to the end of October when croplands are covered by food crops (Dhaba et al., 2012).
Poor nutrition is a key systemic bottleneck and challenges to the productivity of small ruminants in Ethiopia (Hailemariam et al., 2013;Gurmessa et al., 2015;Melesse et al., 2015;Eshetu et al., 2018). Abebe et al. (2013) reported there is an existence of a relationship between feed shortage and sheep disease and death incidence period. According to this report sheep, morbidity and death are high from July to the end of October due to feeding shortage and the availability of poisonous plants which may predispose the animals to low disease resistance in the Burie District. During such seasons the quality of available forage is low and browse species that provide higher levels of proteins and energy are sparsely grown (Fikru and Gebeyew 2015).

Lack of market access and information
A marketing channel refers to the sequence of enterprises and markets by which product is moved from producer to consumer. Market locations in primary and secondary markets are usually not fenced; traders and exporters are also faced with marketing problems (Gizaw et al., 2010). Households selling small ruminants are often interfered with by a lack of price information and access to the incentive market, seasonality of markets, and brokers (Tadele, 2015). The absence of a market-oriented production system; lack of market information and seasonality of market price was the major constraint for sheep production in the case of Sodo Zuria District (Beyene and Anja, 2018). Market accesses were the constraints mentioned for goat production in the Dire Dawa Administration (Eshetu et al., 2018). The price of sheep fluctuates over the year and it was found high on holidays such as Easter, Christmas, Muslim holidays, and the Ethiopian New Year and low during the wet and drought season (Mekuriaw et al., 2012).

Water shortage
Water shortages are a common problem for both human and livestock consumption in most Rift Valley parts of the country. Water shortage is reported as a limiting factor in most lowland areas to a limited extent in midlatitudes. In the eastern, northeastern, and southeastern parts of the country, there is a critical shortage of water; however, small ruminants are somehow adapted to these agro-ecologies through their physiological adaptation mechanisms (Gizaw et al., 2010;Umeta et al., 2011). Restrictions of water may result in poor nutrition and digestion, because there is a relationship that exists between water intake and consumption of roughages, particularly during the dry season.
Long-distance travel of small and large ruminants in searching for water was another problem (Yami et al., 2013). According to Tadesse et al. (2014b), water scarcity was the major constraint of goat production across production systems in Ethiopia.

Lack of genetic improvement
The main reasons for unsuccessful genetic improvements were indiscriminate crossbreeding with no plan on how to maintain a suitable blood level, lack of clear breeding and distribution strategy, lack of farmer's